Imej Profesional

Dalam 1970s, wanita memasuki tenaga kerja, dan terutama jawatan-jawatan pentadbiran, dalam nombor-nombor luar biasa (Damhorst, Jondle, & Youngberg, 2004; Forsythe, 1993; Kaisar, 1997; Mengerling & Damhorst, 1999). Sebagai wanita disesuaikan kepada peranan-peranan baru ini terdapat sedikit kekeliruan sebagai untuk pakaian perniagaan yang sesuai dikehendaki wanita kepada projek satu imej kredibiliti profesional, kuasa dan keberkesanan. Penulis yang terkenal, John T Molloy (1977), bermula menasihati wanita bagaimana kepada Dress untuk Success. Maklumat baik dan frasa “berpakaian untuk berjaya” menjadi diterima dengan meluas (Forsythe). Molloy menasihatkan wanita untuk pakai pakaian yang mengikut kelas pertengahan atas, seperti kualiti terbaik dalam warna-warna berkecuali dan fabrik membuat serat semula jadi halus. Sebagai tambahan, dia menasihatkan yang wanita meminati pakaian jawatan-jawatan pentadbiran mengelak sut dalam kelabu, tentera laut atau hitam dengan bahantara berduit pam dan menjahit blaus. Dia menasihatkan wanita untuk tidak pernah berpakaian seperti seorang pemuka fesyen, memakai sesuatu seksi, meniru seorang lelaki, atau ambil jaket sut dari di tempat kerja. Molloy menunjukkan bahawa satu menjumlahkan rupa konservatif patut memasukkan fesyen rambut dan kosmetik.

Dalam Molloy (1996) edisi kedua, dia alamat perniagaan bersahaja dan mengubah sikap-sikap berkenaan pakaian formal. Dia disarankan yang ahli-ahli perniagaan telah menerima jaket sebagai pengganti wanita untuk sut urusan jantan. Saya Te memerhatikan yang memukul leret atas sehelai jaket serta-merta menambah untuk kuasa pemakai. Sut paling berkesan kini boleh termasuk seluar serta sehelai skirt. Jaket paling berkesan tetap gaya berbutang sebaris tradisional dengan satu lapel tradisional dalam berkecuali pertengahan nada mewarnakan. Dia meneruskan berhujah itu menjadi pemuka fesyen fesyen memudaratkan untuk satu kerjaya. Untuk pengurusan pertengahan, Molloy berkata ia terbaik untuk pakai pakaian, sut dan jaket-jaket pandangan itu menjahit dan agak maskulin dan konservatif.

Penulis-penulis terkenal lain telah menolong untuk membentuk women's pendapat-pendapat berkenaan pakaian profesional sesuai. Penulis-penulis ini percaya yang wanita telah diterima dalam peranan-peranan pengurus dan dapat meluahkan keindividuan mereka melalui fesyen. Sering penulis-penulis ini mempunyai satu pelbagai jenis cadangan-cadangan bertentangan (Forsythe, 1993; Mengerling & Damhorst, 1999) dan jarang menyediakan penyelidikan menyokong cadangan-cadangan mereka (Forsythe, 1993). Darjah kepelbagaian dalam cadangan-cadangan julat dari simbol-simbol konservatif baju untuk satu tatasusunan yang pelbagai barang-barang fesyen (Mengerling & Damhorst, 1999).

Beberapa penulis-penulis terkenal mencadangkan sebagai sesuai untuk perniagaan, item-item pakaian seperti kain-kain sarung atau balutan mengelilingi, skirt sangat pendek, pakaian tanpa lengan dan dengan teruk sut yang ditempah lelaki, manakala penulis-penulis terkenal lain berwaspada terhadap barang-barang sama. Mengerling dan Danihorsi juga mendapati nasihat yang bertentangan dalam akhbar terkenal berkaitan dengan midlevel jawatan-jawatan. Beberapa pengarang menasihatkan yang wanita dalam midlevel jawatan-jawatan perlu berpakaian menjahit jaket-jaket konservatif manakala pengarang-pengarang lain disarankan yang wanita boleh jadi lebih bergaya.

Wanita berkerjaya sibuk dan ramai pelajar paling mungkin membaca artikel-artikel popular daripada artikel-artikel kajian mendapat nasihat mereka pada pakaian formal (Forsythe, 1993).

Artikel-artikel popular adalah penuh maklumat bercanggah yang tidak mungkin semestinya menolong wanita untuk meningkatkan kerjaya mereka atau mencapai kuasa dan kawalan mengenai imej mereka (Forsythe, 1993; Mengerling & Damhorst, 1999). Lelaki dan Banim (2000) didapati yang wanita hendak capai kuasa dan kawalan mengenai imej mereka. Ini mengandungi menggunakan pakaian mereka wujudkan imej-imej yang adalah konsisten dengan identiti profesional mereka. Bagaimana boleh kuasa dan mengawal jadi dicapai apabila kebanyakan wanita profesional tidak pernah membaca artikel penyelidikan pada pengurusan rupa? Penyelidikan telah membuktikan pakaian itu buat mempunyai satu peranan yang sangat besar mengenai pengambilan keputusan dan dalam berkomunikasi satu imej profesional (Damhorst Ct Al, 2004; Forsythe; Johnson & Roach-Higgins, 1987; Johnson, Schofield & Yurcbisin, 2002; Riggio & Throckmorton, 1988).

Dengan mengumpul penyelidikan dan membangun satu siri bengkel memanggungkan maklumat berharga ini, wanita boleh menjadi sedar maklumat tepat yang mempunyai satu kemungkinan untuk meningkatkan kerjaya dan kejayaan perniagaan mereka.

Tujuan
Tujuan projek ini adalah untuk membina satu siri-siri empat bengkel-bengkel yang menumpu pada penyampaian satu imej yang akan menyampaikan kredibiliti profesional, kuasa dan keberkesanan untuk wanita dalam perniagaan menempatkan.

Kepentingan
Supaya memaksimumkan potensi untuk menjamin pekerjaan-pekerjaan yang terbaik dalam satu amat bersaing pasaran, penting untuk faham bagaimana kepada projek satu imej yang membawa kuasa kredibiliti profesional dan keberkesanan (Forsythe, 1993). Pakaian ialah satu alat berpengaruh dan satu yang boleh dengan mudah dimanipulasikan (Forsythe, Drake & mengemudi, 1985; Johnson & Lennon, 1999; Kaisar, 1997). Dengan menggunakan berdasarkan kajian nasihat pada pakaian paling berkesan untuk memakai dalam satu persekitaran profesional, wanita boleh meningkatkan kuasa dan potensi mereka untuk kejayaan ( Forsythe, 1987; Forsythe, 1993; Johnson & Lennon).

Objektif-objektif
Terdapat empat objektif-objektif untuk kajian ini. Matlamat pertama adalah untuk memeriksa kepentingan imej dan bagi semakan semula kesusasteraan berkaitan dengan “berpakaian untuk kejayaan.” Matlamat kedua ialah untuk menggunakan sastera semasa mengenai imej, “berpakaian untuk kejayaan, ” dan prinsip-prinsip seni supaya membangunkan satu proses yang akan membolehkan wanita pada membangunkan sebuah almari pakaian bekerja berkuasa. Matlamat ketiga ialah menyediakan bahan-bahan diguna pakai dalam satu bengkel memandu wanita dalam proses itu membangun satu berkuasa almari pakaian boleh dipercayai dan berkesan. Matlamat terakhir ialah untuk memilih dan mengenal pasti satu alat penilaian untuk menilai diterima keberkesanan bahan-bahan bengkel.


Takrif syarat-syarat
Untuk tujuan-tujuan projek ini, syarat-syarat berikut adalah didefinisikan:

Rupa: Jalan semua unsur-unsur seperti badan, pilihan pakaian, aksesori-aksesori dan hias diri menyesuaikan bersama memesankan satu pesanan visual (Kaisar, 1997).
Kapsul asas: Satu kumpulan kecil pakaian diselaraskan dalam warna dan bentuk dengan bahagian-bahagian yang saling tukar ganti Wal1ach, 1981).

Perniagaan bersahaja: Kerja kesatuan yang menggabungkan seluar panjang tempah, skirt dan jaket-jaket tak dipakai sebagai sesuai (Megumpulkan, Jackson, Stanley, Kefgen, & Touchie-Specht, 2004).

Tanda-tanda pakaian: Penggunaan pakaian sebagai komunikasi tanpa lisan melahirkan satu pemikiran atau sikap (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Cerakin warna: Satu sistem yang menentukan yang kumpulan-kumpulan warna-warna paling mengangkat-angkat untuk warna kulit seorang individu (Megumpulkan et satu]., 2004).
Pelet warna: Perkumpulan sebenar warna-warna disusun oleh nilai rona dan warna yang paling mengangkat-angkat kepada seseorang individu (Jackson, 1985).

Warna konservatif: Warna yang gelap atau tengah dalam nilai (Darnhorst et Al, 2004).

Warna berkecuali klasik: Tentera laut, kelabu, perang, tan, hitam dan kuning air (Damhorst et Al, 2004).

Kredibiliti: Kualiti mengilhamkan kepercayaan melalui rupa (Forysthe, 1993; Kaisar, 1997).

Hutang bajet bebas: Tiada hutang melebihi gadai janji dan bayaran kereta (Pemberton-Sikes, 2004).

Garisan pepenjuru: Mengetuai mata dalam suatu arahan pepenjuru (Davis, 1996).

Berpakaian untuk berjaya: Pakaian pilihan yang meminjamkan kuasa untuk pemakai (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Kod pakaian: Penggunaan dan gabungan tanda-tanda pakaian untuk menunjukkan penggabungan dan kepunyaan (Kaisar, 1997; Mengerling & Damhorst, 1999).

Setiap hari bersahaja: Baju-baju yang kasual yang boleh termasuk seluar, baju-t dan seluar pendek (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Ectomorph: 'Peratusan I'he pengagihan lemak pada sebuah badan adalah amat rendah; anggota badan arka lama dan sempit (Megumpulkan et pada, 2004).

Keberkesanan: Biasa mengeluarkan satu hasil, yang boleh ditugaskan berdasarkan rupa (Kaisar, 1983).

Endomorph: Peratusan pengagihan lemak pada sebuah badan tinggi; badan muncul pusingan dan lembut (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Pandangan pertama: Maklumat disediakan oleh satu rupa yang asal pengirim (Kaisar, 1997).

Kesan halo: Maklumat disediakan oleh satu perjumpaan awal yang mengakibatkan tugasan positif atau negatif sifat-sifat mengikuti mesyuarat pertama itu (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004

Garis lintang: Mengetuai mata merentasi dalam suatu arahan mengufuk (Davis, 1996).

Baju inovatif: Pakaian yang luar biasa atau bergaya, satu rupa individualistik (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Garis: Garis mengetuai mata dalam suatu arahan (Davis, 1996).

Sut urusan jantan: Mengandungi satu sepadan jaket perniagaan, seluar panjang dan satu kemeja formal dan mengikat (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).
Mesomorph: Peratusan lemak pada sebuah badan muncul rendah dan perkembangan otot jelas (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Potensi: Ukuran pencapaian-pencapaian, kemahiran, status secara hubungan atau kuasa (Damhorst, 1990), Power: Potensi untuk mempengaruhi kelakuan orang lain (Johnson & Lennon, 1999).

Pakaian berkualiti: Sifat-sifat setiap unsur satu pakaian mengambil sendiri menentukan kualitinya, seperti fabrik, buttonholes, mengalas dan menjelaskan butiran. Unsur-unsur ini akan menjejaskan bagaimana pakaian kelihatan dan berapa lama ia akan berakhir (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Penerima: “Orang yang membaca dan mentafsirkan (pakaian) mesej” (Marsyal et Al, 2004, p 108).

Pengirim: “Orang yang membangunkan (pakaian) mesej” (Megumpulkan et. Al, 2004, p 108).

Buku nota gaya: Satu panduan diperibadikan untuk setiap peserta yang menggabungkan keunggulan mereka mewarnakan dan gaya-gaya pakaian, analisis potongan badan, gabung padan kapsul almari pakaian, analisis almari pakaian dan rancangan almari pakaian.

Perniagaan tradisional: Pakaian perniagaan klasik, seperti sesuai dan blaus untuk wanita (Marsyal et Al, 2004).

Berseragam: Pakaian terpilih oleh seorang majikan kepada projek ketekalan dan profesionalisme (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004).

Garis tegak: Mengetuai mata naik turun atau dalam suatu arahan tegak (Davis, 1996).

Analisis almari pakaian: Mengkaji sebuah almari pakaian wujud untuk menentukan apa barang-barang adalah diperlukan supaya perancangan almari pakaian boleh berlaku.

Andaian
Kajian berasaskan andaian-andaian berikut yang wanita mahu akan dilihat sebagai berkuasa, boleh dipercayai dan berkesan, dan mahu memaksimumkan potensi mereka oleh faham kesan-kesan baju perniagaan yang sesuai. Ia seterusnya diandaikan yang baju perniagaan yang sesuai boleh menyeluruh merentasi kebanyakan profesion-profesion.

Had-had
Kebanyakan pengehadan-pengehadan yang nyata kajian ini sedang menyiasat hanya satu aspek pembentukan tanggapan, pakaian. Satu tanggapan ditubuhkan menggunakan banyak tanda-tanda, seperti pakaian, ucapan, hias diri, isyarat-isyarat tangan dan bau (Forysthe, 1993; Kaisar, 1997). Dalam pakaian persekitaran kerja tidak boleh melindungi seorang ketika kerja tidak bagus. Sebagai seseorang menjadi terkenal pakaian sering menjadi kurang penting. Bengkel ada terhad untuk empat mesyuarat jadi bukan semua aspek-aspek pakaian dan rupa dialamatkan.




Bab 2
Kajian semula sastera
Tujuan projek ini adalah untuk membina satu siri-siri empat bengkel-bengkel yang menumpu pada penyampaian satu imej yang akan menyampaikan kredibiliti profesional, kuasa dan keberkesanan untuk wanita dalam perniagaan menempatkan. Kajian semula sastera akan meliputi 1) kepentingan imej, 2) prinsip-prinsip seni dan unsur-unsur berkaitan dengan mencapai satu penampilan profesional, dan 3) pengurusan almari pakaian.

Kepentingan imej
Rupa ialah jalan semua unsur-unsur, seperti badan, pilihan pakaian, aksesori-aksesori dan hias diri, menyesuaikan bersama memesankan satu makna visual (Kaisar, 1997). Makna-makna visual sering menentukan untuk barang-barang pakaian. Makna-makna visual ini telah dipanggil tanda-tanda pakaian. Tanda-tanda pakaian boleh berkomunikasi maklumat tentang pengirim kepada penerima itu (Forsythe et Al, 1985; Kaisar, 1997, 1983; Megumpulkan et Al, 2004). Dalam proses mental tidak sedar ini, penerima-penerima membuat pertimbangan tentang pengirim berdasarkan rupa mereka. Penyelidik-penyelidik telah berazam yang beberapa maklumat visual dikumpulkan dari pengirim mungkin termasuk andaian-andaian tentang sifat-sifat personaliti, ciri-ciri fizikal dan biologi, kedudukan sosial, demografi, peranan-peranan pekerjaan dan tujuan-tujuan dan motif-motif (Damhorst, 1990; Johnson et aL, 2002; Roach- Higgins & Eicher, 1992).

Bila orang berjumpa dalam perniagaan dan situasi-situasi sosial mereka melihat satu sama lain dan bawah sedar membentuk kesan tentang yang lain berasaskan makna-makna visual tanda-tanda baju atau pakaian (Forsythe Ct Al, 1985; Kaisar, 1997; Marsyal, et Al, 2004). Kesan yang adalah menugasi untuk pengirim boleh jadi positif dan memudahkan komunikasi selanjutnya atau, sebaliknya, mungkin negatif dan menghentikan mana-mana komunikasi selanjutnya (Kaisar; Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992). Misalnya, semasa satu keadaan temuduga apabila masa adalah kekurangan, kesan menjadi kritikal supaya komunikasi lisan boleh meneruskan (Kaisar; Megumpulkan et Al.).

Rakyat adalah tertarik kepada orang lain yang mereka dapat melihat sebagai berupa diri mereka (Kaisar, 1983, 1997; Reid, Lancuba & Morrow, 1997; Rucker, Taber & Harrison, 1981). Reid, Lancuba dan Morrow memerhatikan yang perkara-perkara berpakaian alternatif satu, begitu juga, terkadar seorang wanita berpakaian alternatif satu lebih tinggi pada daya tarikan dan likeability skala. Semasa satu temubual atau bila bekerja untuk sebuah syarikat yang mempunyai satu imej tersendiri, ia mungkin menjadi penting untuk mengambil makna-makna visual atau tanda-tanda pakaian kelompok itu untuk menjadi dilihat sebagai kekitaan dan sebagai mempunyai kecekapan hendak mendapat di hadapan (Barnard, 2002; Kaisar, 1997; Pekerja, 1990).

Tanggapan pertama dalam satu keadaan temuduga
“Pandangan pertama tempoh merujuk kepada pertimbangan awal membuat tentang orang yang lain berasaskan ciri-ciri dapat dilihat dan kelakuan-kelakuan serta kesimpulan membuat tentang personaliti orang, kelakuan, dan ciri-ciri” (Punggung & Lennon, 1993, p 9). Sering kesan yang ditubuhkan semasa satu mesyuarat pertama, seperti satu temubual, akan mempengaruhi jalan yang pengirim ditanggapi mengikuti perjumpaan awal (Turner- Bowker, 2001). Selepas pandangan pertama penerima boleh menentukan satu sifat atau satu kelompok sifat-sifat berasaskan rupa pengirim atau pemohon (Kaisar, 1997). Kesan halo ini boleh berulang kali mengkreditkan pengirim dengan sifat-sifat positif atau negatif lama selepas mesyuarat pertama (Bchling, 1995; Kaisar; Megumpulkan et Al, 2004). Tugasan awal ciri-ciri boleh mempengaruhi jangkaan-jangkaan berikutnya. Pengurusan gambaran
Dengan penggunaan penuh azam pakaian, setin melakonkan rupa mereka memesankan satu pandangan pertama kredibiliti, kuasa dan keberkesanan (Johnson & Lennon, 1999; Rudd & Lennon, 1999). Oleh faham mesej-mesej yang setiap butir pakaian menghantar, seseorang mungkin menggunakan maklumat ini untuk mempengaruhi tugasan ciri-ciri (Kaisar, 1983; Megumpulkan et Al,, 2004). Dalam satu keadaan temuduga atau profesional, tugasan ciri-ciri positif seperti satu peranan pekerjaan, tujuan-tujuan, motif-motif, dan kuasa boleh mempengaruhi tanggapan keupayaan-keupayaan pengirim.

Pengurusan gambaran boleh menguntungkan wanita-wanita berunding pertukaran hidup seperti berpindah dari pelajar untuk profesional, menukar kerjaya-kerjaya atau semasa kemajuan dalam satu profesion wujud (Kaisar. 1997). Penggunaan strategi-strategi pengurusan gambaran boleh membantu pengirim dalam mewujudkan satu imej kuasa profesional dan keberkesanan (Kaisar; Turner-Bowker, 2001). Pengurusan gambaran boleh menjurus berpakaian untuk kejayaan.

Berpakaian untuk berjaya wanita dalam tenaga kerja
Sebagai wanita memasuki tenaga kerja dalam nombor-nombor rekod dalam saya 970s (Damhorst et satu!., 2004; Forsythe, 1993; Kaisar, 1997; Mengerling & Damhorst, 1999) terdapat kekeliruan tentang apa pakaian akan terbaik menyampaikan kredibiliti profesional, kuasa dan keberkesanan. Sut urusan jantan telah satu simbol termakbul satu ahli perniagaan berjaya sejak saya abad kesembilan (Damhorst & Reed, 1986; Kaisar; Mengerling & Danthorst). Sekiranya seorang wanita yang harap akan diperhatikan sebagai berjaya memakai suatu guaman meniru seorang lelaki? “Berpakaian untuk kejayaan” strategi-strategi menjadi kritikal sebagai wanita termasuk dalam dahulunya lelaki menguasai profesion-profesion (Forsythe).

Kelelakian baju
Diterima jantina satu kelompok boleh mempengaruhi kesan yang dibuat. Penyelidikan mencadangkan sedemikian apabila wanita memakai terlalu maskulin (e.g, memakai gerenyet), rakyat akan bertindak secara negatif (Forsythe et Al, 1985; Johnson, Crutsinger & pekerja, 1994). Bagaimanapun, apabila seorang wanita berpakaian suatu guaman dengan sehelai blaus tempah dia ditanggapi sebagai mempunyai sifat-sifat pengurusan maskulin seperti kebolehan kepimpinan, daya saing, tanggungjawab keinginan, keyakinan diri, objektiviti, keagresifan, kekuatan dan ambitiousness (Damhorst et Al, 2004; Forsythe et Al; Forsythe, 1987, 1990). Seorang wanita berpakaian sehelai pakaian feminin lembut sering diterima untuk memiliki sifat-sifat feminin seperti gerak hati, kebergunaan, sifat-sifat humanistik, kecekapan dan kepekaan. Kajian penyelidikan menunjukkan yang ia terbaik ialah untuk wanita dalam pengurusan untuk ralat pada sebelah muncul terlalu maskulin daripada feminin, sebagai pakaian maskulin nampaknya tidak untuk menjejaskan pengkadaran sifat-sifat feminin (Damhorst, 1990; Damhorst et Al; Forsythe et Al, Forsythe 1987).

Formaliti baju sedang bekerja
Dalam perniagaan dan peringkat menengah profesion perguruan, pakaian perniagaan wanita rasmi kelihatan seperti projek rupa yang lebih berkuasa (Kenner, Underwood & McClune, 2002; Kwon & Johnson Hillary, 1998). Pakaian formal mengandungi sut skirt gelap dengan sehelai blaus putih, pakaian formal separuh ialah sepasang seluar dengan jaket sukan kain bulu, dan pakaian tidak rasmi ialah satu blaus dan seluar. Jaket sut muncul menjadi satu penyelesaian sebahagian daripada kelompok perniagaan. Ia telah didapati untuk memberi pakar dan kuasa sah (Ross & pengulit, 2003; Kuil & Loewen, 1993). Secara umum, rupa yang lebih rasmi untuk seorang wanita telah diletakkan dengan rupa yang lebih berkuasa menganggap, seperti sahih, boleh dipercayai, cekap, boleh dipercayai, pintar, boleh dipercayai, bersedia bekerja dengan keras, cekap, mudah didekati, santun, mesra, dan seperti berniaga (Kenner et pada; Kwon & Johnson Hillary, 2001).

Pakaian perniagaan konservatif dalam satu keadaan temuduga
Dalam 1999Ogle dan Damhorst dikaji semula “Berpakaian untuk berjaya” perkara-perkara diterbitkan dalam akhbar terkenal. Mereka menemui kelompok yang paling mencadangkan untuk pakaian temu duga ialah sut mengikut potongan badan. Penyelidik-penyelidik mendapati yang memakai baju perniagaan konservatif ialah paling menguntungkan untuk temu duga dan kemajuan kerjaya tanpa mengira pendudukan atau jantina penemuduga (Damhorst et Al, 2004; Forsythe, 1990; Jenkins & Atkins, 1990). Damhorst dan rakan-rakan sekerja disarankan yang untuk meningkatkan imej anda, pakaian konservatif terbaik ialah, walau dalam satu lebih persekitaran pekerjaan biasa kerana “temuduga pekerjaan ialah satu situasi ritual di mana pemohon kerja membuat satu prestasi simbolik” (Damhorst et Al, p 232).

Damhorst dan rakan-rakan sekerja belajar pakaian temu duga dalam 1991 dan 2002 (Damhorst & Fiore, 1999; Damhorst et Al, 2004)). Keputusan dari 2002 kajian menunjukkan yang gaya sut pilihan telah menjadi lebih konservatif sejak 1991 kajian. Sut pilihan dalam 1991 koordinat-koordinat, tak semestinya dari fabrik sama, dan banyak tidak mempunyai kolar-kolar dan lapel. Bagaimanapun, dalam 2002 mengkaji mereka menemui yang kebanyakan sut pilihan lebih konservatif daripada dalam 1991 dengan kolar-kolar tradisional dan lapel dan dibina fabrik sama. Menariknya, pilihan 2002 kesatuan mengandungi pantsuit kurang konservatif. 2002 kesatuan mempertimbangkan sebagai paling sesuai mempunyai kurang barang kemas dan leher baju rendah sedikit. Skirt panjang sut kekal konservatif dalam kedua-dua belajar. Damhorst dan rakan-rakan sekerja (2004) diakhiri bahawa satu 'unjuran seorang profesional wajar dan perniagaan berjanji rupa kelihatan seperti yang dijangkakan oleh perekrut dan penemu duga-penemu duga pekerjaan” (p 232).

Rambut dan komposisi
Jenkins dan Atkins (1990) didapati yang fesyen rambut paling sedikit diterima dalam satu keadaan temuduga ialah pandangan punk, sambut satu pendek, gaya keriting. Fesyen rambut terbaik ialah satu dengan lembut mengibarkan gaya panjang bahu. Pekerja dan Johnson (1991) didapati yang seorang wanita menggunakan satu jumlah sederhana komposisi telah dianggap sebagai lebih menarik dan feminin. Sebagai tambahan, mereka menemui yang wanita yang menggunakan terlalu banyak komposisi telah diamati sebagai mempunyai akhlak longgar (Pekerja & Johnson).

Prinsip-prinsip seni dan unsur-unsur sebagai berkaitan dengan berpakaian untuk berjaya warna
Dalam 1 970s cerakin warna peribadi telah berubah ke dalam perniagaan besar (Kaisar, 1997). Jackson (1985) dibangunkan analisis warna peribadi berasaskan setiap masing-masing kulit, mata dan semula jadi rambut mewarnai. Diri tiap-tiap kemudian dikategorikan ke dalam satu musim, atau pelet warna. Musim-musim dimasukkan: Autumn (panas, gelap dan perlahan), Winter (dingin, gelap dan jelas), Spring (panas, cahaya dan cerah), dan Summer (dingin, cahaya dan perlahan). Bila seorang individu memakai warna-warna musim yang paling selaras, kulit mereka akan dilicinkan dan menjelaskan. Jackson menunjukkan warna-warna memilih tidak betul akan menyerlahkan kecacatan muka seperti bulatan-bulatan gelap, tompok-tompok, dan baris-baris. Francis dan Evans (1988) didapati bahawa satu memperagakan memakai satu aprikot atau blaus merah dalam musim warnanya telah diletakkan lebih tinggi daripada model-model bukan meletihkan mewarnakan pelet warna mereka.

Dalam 1990, Jenkins dan Atkins mendapati terbaik diterima sut diwarnakan untuk satu temubual ialah tentera laut. Damhorst dan rakan-rakan sekerja menjalankan dua kajian, 1999 dan 2002, di mana mereka melihat warna-warna paling banyak diterima dan gaya-gaya temu duga sesuai. Keputusan dari 1999 kajian disarankan emas dan hijau itu bersama dengan neutral sugul dipilih sebagai lebih sesuai. Dalam 2002, Damhorst dan rakan-rakan sekerja mendapati yang warna-warna terbaik lebih konservatif: padu, gelap dan tengah dalam nilai, bersama dengan neutral klasik seperti hitam, kelabu, tentera laut, unta dan perang.

Dalam kajian mereka menyiasat warna pakaian dan nilai pada kesan-kesan penilaian-penilaian pemohon-pemohon pekerjaan wanita, Damhorst dan Reed (1986) didapati penemu duga-penemu duga jantan membalas lebih secara positif untuk sut lebih gelap mewarnakan. Enam gambar-gambar model-model wanita (model-model ialah Caucasian tetapi mengubah dalam peribadi mewarnai dan daya penarik fizikal), setiap meletihkan empat jaket-jaket berwarna berbeza, terkadar oleh lelaki dan responden-responden wanita. Penemu duga-penemu duga jantan terkadar pemohon-pemohon wanita dalam jaket-jaket lebih gelap lebih tinggi dalam potensi dan keramahan. Wanita penemu duga-penemu duga memohon lebih bertentangan ciri-ciri daripada lelaki kepada pemohon-pemohon dalam sut-sut gelap. Penyelidik-penyelidik menyimpulkan yang wanita mungkin tidak memegang jangkaan-jangkaan konsisten untuk women's pakaian formal. Penyelidikan kelihatan seperti menunjukkan itu untuk lelaki “sut gelap ialah satu simbol sangat melekat eksekutif perniagaan jantan” (Damhorst & Reed, p 95). Sebagai tambahan, wanita yang mahu “untuk mengoptimumkan semua aspek-aspek penyampaian diri, pilihan suatu guaman berwarna gelap boleh membantu sedikit dalam memelihara satu tanggapan profesional” (Damhorst & Reed, p 96). Garis dan reka bentuk

Penggunaan yang berkemahiran garis dan reka bentuk dalam pemilihan pakaian boleh membantu wanita dalam memajukan rupa yang lebih unggul. Satu rupa unggul boleh membantu rakyat untuk mengalami lebih banyak “kuasa ganjaran, ” seperti seperti kehormatan dan kelulusan peribadi dari yang lain (Johnson, Heglund & Schofield, 1999; Johnson & Lennon, 1999). Satu rupa unggul bentuk mestilah untuk norma-norma kemasyarakatan, seperti menyelaraskan pakaian atau badan-badan kurus muda supaya mengukuhkan kuasa kredibiliti profesional dan keberkesanan (Johnson & Lennon; Rudd & Lennon, 1999). Dalam satu persekitaran profesional, satu rupa unggul “mungkin terutamanya penting untuk tidak aliran utama mengumpulkan seperti pekerja-pekerja muda, minoriti etnik, wanita dan individu-individu obes” (Johnson & Lennon, p 5).

Rakyat dilahirkan dengan ciri-ciri fizikal tertentu seperti binaan tubuh badan, kadaran tubuh, dan bentuk muka. Ciri-ciri fizikal unggul arka dipengaruhi oleh budaya dan fesyen (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004). Susuk badan badan unggul Eropah semasa itu adalah diseimbangkan, dengan kadar 3-2-3. Jenis-jenis badan adalah dikategorikan menurut persamaan-persamaan dalam komposisi, misalnya, peratusan lemak untuk jisim tubuh tanpa lemak sebagai diwakilkan oleh endomorf, mesomorf dan ektomorf. Secara menegak, badan betul-betul seimbang boleh dibahagikan kepada empat bahagian sama rata: atas kepala untuk ketiak, ketiak untuk pinggul, pinggul untuk lutut, dan lutut untuk tunggal kaki. Dengan penggunaan kumpulan ini prinsip asas garis dan reka bentuk dalam pemilihan pakaian, setin mewujudkan ilusi rupa yang lebih unggul.

Garis mengadakan kesan visual yang boleh digunakan bagi mencipta satu rupa unggul. Garis mengetuai mata dan boleh mentakrifkan dan mewujudkan bentuk. Garis akan menunjukkan arah, dan, dengan penggunaan yang berkemahiran, mewujudkan satu ilusi (Davis, 1996; Megumpulkan et Al, 2004). Penggunaan yang berkemahiran garis pada pakaian boleh menyembunyikan satu kecacatan dan menegaskan seorang yang positif (Davis).

Ilusi dicipta oleh garis tak terhingga dalam kepelbagaian. Baris-baris asas termasuk tegak, mengufuk, pepenjuru, liku-liku dan melengkung. Garisan-garisan menegak umumnya menambah ketinggian dan panjang untuk badan dan akan mengetuai mata naik turun. Garisan-garisan menegak telah dapat diwujudkan pada pakaian melalui penggunaan warna atau bebayang. Garisan-garisan menegak baik untuk orang yang yang mahu untuk kelihatan lebih tinggi (Davis, 1996; Megumpulkan et Al, 2004). Satu garis mendatar mengetuai mata merentasi badan, kemudian menambah kelebaran atau keluasan dan dapat menyingkatkan badan. Beberapa orang menggunakan sangat tinggi dan langsing garisan-garisan melintang melihat lebih luas. Garisan-garisan condong boleh mewujudkan satu lelemak atau menyambung kesan. Garisan-garisan condong sering boleh jadi melangsingkan jika lereng lebih rapat untuk tegak, seperti bentuk lapel pada jaket perniagaan (Megumpulkan et Al.). Berliku-liku baris-baris (satu siri-siri pepenjuru-pepenjuru berkaitan) meningkatkan jisim. Garisan-garisan berkeluk adalah lembut dan mendahului mata; mereka biasanya akan turut meningkat jisim.

Pengurusan almari pakaian
Supaya hadir satu imej setiap hari yang akan menyampaikan kredibiliti profesional, kuasa dan keberkesanan, satu mesti mempunyai pakaian yang sesuai. Melalui perancangan teliti, sebuah almari pakaian yang berjumpa satu profesional orang dan keperluan belanjawan dapat tercapai. Beberapa komponen utama hendaklah dianalisis supaya rancangan dan membangunkan sebuah almari pakaian bekerja. Proses perancangan untuk mencapai satu berkuasa “berpakaian untuk berjaya” almari pakaian termasuk mengambil ke dalam ciri-ciri badan persendirian pertimbangan, matlamat kerjaya, kod pakaian syarikat, bajet dan almari pakaian wujud (Davis, 1996; Feldon, 2003; Megumpulkan et satu!., 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004).

Matlamat kerjaya
Ia penting menimbangkan di mana seseorang itu menempatkan dalam kitaran hayat suatu pekerjaan apabila merancang satu “berpakaian untuk berjaya” almari pakaian. Rucker, Anderson, dan Kangas (1999) didapati pekerja yang ialah dekat persaraan atau berpuas hati dengan jawatan-jawatan mereka tidak meminati melihat berkuasa, mereka lebih bimbang dengan keselesaan. Untuk rakyat yang lebih muda atau berhasrat satu kemajuan, “berpakaian untuk berjaya” menjadi lebih penting.

Kod pakaian
Semasa satu temubual atau bila bekerja untuk sebuah syarikat yang mempunyai satu imej tersendiri, ia mungkin menjadi penting untuk mengambil makna-makna visual atau tanda-tanda pakaian kelompok itu, atau kod pakaian, untuk menjadi dilihat sebagai kekitaan dan sebagai mempunyai kecekapan hendak mendapat di hadapan (Bernard, 2002; Kaisar, 1997; Pekerja, 1990). Kod pakaian untuk pakaian perniagaan boleh dibahagikan kepada lima kategori: perniagaan tradisional, perniagaan bersahaja, setiap hari bersahaja, berseragam dan baju inovatif (Megumpulkan et Al, 2004). Kerana jaket sut muncul menjadi utama sebahagian daripada satu kelompok menyampaikan pakar dan kuasa sah (Ross & pengulit, 2003; Kuil & Loewen, 1993), ia penting menggabungkan jaket ke dalam setiap kategori kod pakaian wujudkan dan mengekalkan satu imej berkuasa.

Untuk sebuah almari pakaian profesional tradisional menggabungkan kod pakaian sut asas tradisional kepingan-kepingan, seperti jaket, skirt dan tercungap-cungap dalam fabrik sama, dengan gaya rasmi. Kod pakaian kasual perniagaan lebih tidak rasmi daripada baju perniagaan tradisional. Satu kurang jaket tempah atau rasmi boleh dipakai, dan kepingan-kepingan dapat bercampur-gaul dan menandingi dalam selaras kesatuan. Kakitangan syarikat bersahaja setiap hari mungkin memakai seluar atau seluar pendek teratur. Supaya kelihatan serius tentang ones meletakkan, satu jaket fabrik yang lebih bersahaja dan gaya boleh disempurnakan satu kesatuan. Baju inovatif dipeluk oleh syarikat-syarikat yang mahu pekerja-pekerja mereka kepada projek satu imej unik (Megumpulkan Ct Al, 2004). Dalam kes ini rakyat akan memakai satu kesatuan yang unik. Menggabungkan sehelai jaket inovatif akan mengekalkan satu imej berkuasa.

Belanjawan
Melalui perancangan teliti sebuah almari pakaian berkesan dan berkuasa tidak perlu berada mahal. Pertama, penting untuk menemui perbelanjaan pakaian sebenar dalam tahun lepas dan bandingkan mereka untuk apa perancang kewangan mencadangkan (Pemberton-Sikes, 2004; Ramsey, 2003). Perancang kewangan mencadangkan dalam bajet bebas hutang (melebihi gadai janji dan pinjaman kereta), bajet pakaian bersamaan satu purata 6% pendapatan isirumah dibahagikan antara semua ahli-ahli keluarga setiap tahun. Sebagai tambahan, peruntukan seharusnya seterusnya dibahagikan ke dalam Fall dan Spring membeli-belah musim-musim.

Supaya meregangkan sebuah almari pakaian dolar ia penting menimbangkan kualiti lawan kuantiti, tinggal dalam pelet warna pilihan dan hanya membeli pakaian yang mengangkat-angkat untuk angka. Oleh mengikuti kesilapan-kesilapan yang mahal garis-garis panduan ini boleh dikurangkan. Bila kepingan-kepingan utama dalam sebuah almari pakaian, seperti suatu guaman asas dalam satu warna berkecuali, keperluan akan dibeli ia penting melihat di kualiti. Kepingan-kepingan sut asas sepatutnya kualiti tinggi supaya mereka boleh berlarutan buat sekian lama dan jadi digunakan sebagai sebuah blok binaan untuk belian akan datang (Feldon, 2003; Megumpulkan et Al, 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004).

Bila pakaian kualiti terbaik dibeli, butir akan tahan lebih lama daripada satu benda yang sama kualiti yang lebih buruk. Harga setiap memakai menjadi sangat rendah (Megumpulkan Ct aL, 2004). Misalnya, sepasang $100 helai seluar pendek yang dipakai dua kali seminggu untuk setahun akan mempunyai satu kos setiap meletihkan $0.96.

Analisis almari pakaian wujud
Mengkaji sebuah almari pakaian wujud sering sangat emosional kerana kesatuan dikenal pasti dengan makna-makna dari pengalaman-pengalaman silam (Lelaki & Banim, 2000). Supaya membuat satu penilaian rasional pakaian, ia penting melihat di setiap butir sebagai secara objektif yang mungkin. Soalan-soalan objektif pada menyoal akan termasuk: adakah ini butir pakaian dalam pelet warna terbaik; adakah butir dalam pembaikan yang elok tentang berkualiti baik, dan satu padanan yang sesuai; adakah butir menyampaikan imej sesuai; dan butir satu gaya mengangkat-angkat? Jika jawapan untuk mana-mana daripada soalan-soalan ini ialah “tiada, ” butir patut disingkirkan (Feldon, 2003; Marsyal et Al, 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004). Penyingkiran barangan yang yang tidak sesuai kriteria akan berlepas hanya barang-barang di mana untuk membina sebuah almari pakaian yang membawa kredibiliti, kuasa dan keberkesanan.

Warna
Bagi membantu mewujudkan rupa yang lebih unggul semua kepingan-kepingan pakaian dalam sebuah almari pakaian sepatutnya dalam satu pelet warna mengangkat-angkat. Satu faedah praktis untuk satu pelet warna selaras menjadi nyata apabila seseorang patuh kepada pelet itu memandu perancangan almari pakaian. Keseluruhan almari pakaian itu beransur-ansur koordinat-koordinat sebagai kepingan-kepingan baru adalah diperkenalkan (Davis, 1996; Jackson, 1985). Ini membolehkan seorang untuk mempunyai lebih warna menyelaraskan gabungan-gabungan kelompok.
Teras sebuah almari pakaian profesional asas bermula dengan satu berkualiti baik sut berwarna berkecuali. Formaliti sut boleh jadi reflektif kategori perniagaan seperti tradisional, perniagaan bersahaja, setiap hari bersahaja. Warna-warna sut yang terbaik lebih konservatif: padu, gelap dan tengah dalam nilai, bersama dengan neutral klasik seperti hitam, kelabu, tentera laut, unta dan perang (Damhorst et Al, 2004; Feldon, 2003).

Garis dan reka bentuk
Kepingan-kepingan pakaian dalam sebuah almari pakaian juga harus memasukkan elemen-elemen rekaan yang akan meningkatkan sifat-sifat fizikal positif dan penyamaran ciri-ciri negatif supaya mencapai rupa unggul (Davis, 1996; Feldon, 2003). Misalnya, jika seseorang mempunyai kaki pendek, sehelai jaket lebih pendek dan seluar sempit akan mewujudkan ilusi kaki-kaki lebih panjang (Davis).

Konsep kapsul
Sebuah almari pakaian dirancang teliti mengandungi pakaian yang akan menunjukkan penampilan diingini kredibiliti profesional, kuasa dan keberkesanan. Satu kapsul asas akan mencapai gol ini dengan satu jumlah minimum pakaian (Marshal Ct Al, 2004; Wallach, 1981). Konsep kapsul ialah prinsip menggunakan satu kumpulan kecil item-item pakaian yang adalah diselaraskan dalam warna, dalam mengangkat-angkat gaya-gaya dan bentuk-bentuk dan dengan bahagian-bahagian yang saling tukar ganti (Wallach). Seseorang boleh mempunyai satu kapsul atau banyak kapsul bergantung mengenai keperluan mereka.
Satu kapsul asas ada keterbatasannya untuk dua prinsip mewarnakan, setiap yang boleh dipakai sahaja atau dicampur dengan yang lain (Wallach, 1981). Sebagai perunding almari pakaian untuk 18 tahun, penyelidik ini mendapati bahawa satu kapsul dapat dipermudahkan untuk satu warna asas dan kemudian ditambah dengan tekanan. Tentera laut ialah satu contoh baik untuk satu mata air atau menjalani musim sejuk pelet warna (pelbagai warna unta akan baik untuk musim panas, musim bunga atau musim luruh). Kepingan-kepingan sut asas seperti skirt celana dan jaket dalam tentera laut akan menjadi asas. Kepingan-kepingan sut boleh dipakai bersama untuk temu duga apabila rupa yang sangat rasmi diingini atau dapat dipecahkan ke atas adalah dipakai dalam pelbagai kombinasi untuk suatu perniagaan bersahaja atau satu rupa yang kasual setiap hari.

Teratas tambahan, skirt dan seluar yang akan ditambah sepatutnya menyelaraskan dengan kapsul tentera laut. Skirt cetakan dengan tentera laut dan warna-warna lain boleh dipakai dengan jaket untuk pandangan perniagaan. Untuk satu wajah parti skirt cetakan sama boleh dipakai dengan bahagian atas baju dalam. Loghat pelbagai mewarnai teratas boleh dipakai dengan sut. Setiap butir menambahkan kepada kapsul ini akan mewujudkan lebih pilihan almari pakaian. Satu puncak bermanik-manik boleh mengambil sut asas dari pejabat untuk sebuah parti. Pilihan almari pakaian menjadi luas dengan perancangan teliti (Davis, 1996; Marsyal et Al, 2004; Wallach, 1981).

Almari pakaian bersedia menghadapi kejayaan kerjaya
Perancangan almari pakaian bermula dengan apa dianggap bagus dalam almari wujud, selepas analisis almari pakaian dijalankan. Pakaian dikekalkan almari sepatutnya dalam pelet warna yang betul, pembaikan yang elok tentang berkualiti baik dan menyesuaikan, dalam imej sesuai, dan dalam satu gaya mengangkat-angkat. Lang seterusnya kepada pasukan pakaian ke dalam kapsul munasabah oleh warna, misalnya, semua barang-barang asas koordinat itu dengan celana tentera laut. Kapsul tentera laut (atau warna asas lain, seperti unta, hitam, perang) patut memasukkan jaket sut, teratas, dasar tentera laut, kasut dan sebuah beg tangan. Terdapat mungkin permulaan-permulaan lebih daripada satu kapsul. Setiap kapsul harus diperiksa dan satu senarai membeli-belah mewujudkan menampilkan barang-barang yang hilang dari perkumpulan (Davis, 1996; Megumpulkan et Al, 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004; Wallach, 1981). Bila bajet pakaian ada keterbatasannya ia terbaik ialah untuk memfokuskan pada memperoleh pakaian berkaitan dengan satu kapsul pada masa. Lang berikutnya adalah untuk memperkenalkan satu lagi warna kapsul seperti kepingan-kepingan sut kuning air. Tentera laut dan kepingan-kepingan kuning air boleh dicampuradukkan bersama. Dengan perancangan teliti, teratas berasingan dan dasar boleh bekerja dengan kedua-dua kapsul.

Selepas analisis almari pakaian, perancangan teliti dan pembelian, pakaian dalam almari sepatutnya dalam pelet warna yang betul, dalam pembaikan yang elok tentang berkualiti baik tentang padanan yang sesuai, dalam satu imej sesuai dan dalam satu gaya mengangkat-angkat. Dengan kesemua unsur-unsur ini siap diatur seseorang seharusnya berupaya menggunakan pakaian mereka dengan berkesan dan menunjukkan satu imej setiap hari kredibiliti profesional, kuasa dan keberkesanan.

Ringkasan
Peranan rupa dalam berkomunikasi seorang profesional, imej berkuasa dan boleh dipercayai telah ditubuhkan (Forsythe, 1993; Kenner et Al, 2002). Pakaian ialah satu aspek rupa yang mudah untuk mengubah. Oleh faham mesej-mesej yang setiap butir pakaian menghantar, dan melaksanakan sebuah almari pakaian sistematik merancang satu pcrson boleh memajukan satu penampilan profesional berkuasa dan cekap.

Professional Image

In the 1970s, women entered the workforce, and particularly management positions, in extraordinary numbers (Damhorst, Jondle, & Youngberg, 2004; Forsythe, 1993; Kaiser, 1997; Ogle & Damhorst, 1999). As women were adapting to these new roles there was some confusion as to the appropriate business attire required of women to project an image of professional credibility, power and effectiveness. Popular author, John T. Molloy (1977), began advising women how to Dress for Success. The information was well timed and the phrase “dress for success” became widely accepted (Forsythe). Molloy advised women to wear clothing that emulated the upper middle class, such as the best quality in neutral colours and fabrics made of fine natural fibers. In addition, he advised that women interested in management positions wear skirted suits in grey, black or navy with medium-heeled pumps and tailored blouses. He advised women to never dress like a trendsetter, wear anything sexy, imitate a man, or take the suit jacket off at work. Molloy indicated that a total conservative appearance should include hairstyle and cosmetics.

In Molloy’s (1996) second edition, he addressed business casual and the shifting attitudes concerning business dress. He suggested that businessmen had accepted the jacket as the female substitute for the male business suit. I Te observed that putting on a jacket instantly added to the wearer’s authority. The most effective suit could now include pants as well as a skirt. The most effective jacket was still the traditional single-breasted style with a traditional lapel in neutral mid tone colours. He continued to argue that being a fashion trendsetter is detrimental to a career. For middle management, Molloy said it was best to wear clothes, suits and jackets that look tailored and somewhat masculine and conservative.

Other popular authors have helped to shape women’s opinions concerning appropriate professional attire. These authors believe that women have been accepted in managerial roles and can express their individuality through fashion. Often these authors have a variety of conflicting recommendations (Forsythe, 1993; Ogle & Damhorst, 1999) and seldom provide research to support their recommendations (Forsythe, 1993). The degree of variety in recommendations ranges from conservative symbols of dress to a diverse array of fashion items (Ogle & Damhorst, 1999). Some popular authors recommend as appropriate for business, clothing items such as sarongs or wrap skirts, very short skirts, sleeveless garments and severely man tailored suits, while other popular authors cautioned against the same items. Ogle and Danihorsi also found conflicting advice in the popular press pertaining to midlevel positions. Some authors advised that women in midlevel positions should wear tailored conservative jackets while other authors suggested that women could be more fashionable.

Busy career women and many students are most likely to read popular articles rather than research articles to get their advice on business dress (Forsythe, 1993).

Popular articles are full of conflicting information that may not necessarily help women to enhance their careers or achieve power and control over their image (Forsythe, 1993; Ogle & Damhorst, 1999). Guy and Banim (2000) found that women want to achieve power and control over their image. This consists of using their clothing to create images that are consistent with their professional identity. How can power and control be achieved when most professional women have never read a research article on appearance management? Research has shown that clothing does have a considerable influence on hiring decisions and in communicating a professional image (Damhorst Ct al., 2004; Forsythe; Johnson & Roach-Higgins, 1987; Johnson, Schofield & Yurcbisin, 2002; Riggio & Throckmorton, 1988). By gathering research and developing a series of workshops to present this valuable information, women can become cognizant of accurate information that has a possibility to enhance their career and business success.

Purpose
The purpose of this project was to develop a series of four workshops that focused on the presentation of an image that will convey professional credibility, power and effectiveness for women in business positions.

Significance
In order to maximize potential for securing the best jobs in a very competitive market, it is important to understand how to project an image that conveys professional credibility power and effectiveness (Forsythe, 1993). Clothing is a powerful tool and one that can be easily manipulated (Forsythe, Drake & Cox, 1985; Johnson & Lennon, 1999; Kaiser, 1997). By utilizing research based advice on the most effective clothing to wear in a professional environment, women can enhance their power and potential for success ( Forsythe, 1987; Forsythe, 1993; Johnson & Lennon).

Objectives
There were four objectives for this study. The first objective was to examine the importance of image and to review the literature pertaining to “dressing for success.” The second objective was to utilize current literature regarding image, “dressing for success,” and art principles in order to develop a process that would enable women to develop a powerful working wardrobe. The third objective was to prepare materials to be used in a workshop to guide women in the process of developing a powerful credible and effective wardrobe. The final objective was to select and identify an evaluation instrument to assess the perceived effectiveness of the workshop materials.

Definition of Terms
For purposes of this project, the following terms are defined:

Appearance: The way all the elements such as body, clothing choices, accessories and grooming fit together to send a visual message (Kaiser, 1997).
Basic capsule: A small group of clothing coordinated in colour and shape with interchangeable parts Wal1ach, 1981).

Business casual: Work ensembles that incorporate tailored slacks, skirts and jackets not worn as suits (Marshall, Jackson, Stanley, Kefgen, & Touchie-Specht, 2004).
Clothing cues: The use of clothing as nonverbal communication to express a thought or attitude (Marshall et al., 2004).

Colour analysis: A system that determines which groups of colours are most flattering to an individual’s skin tone (Marshall et a]., 2004).
Colour palette: The actual groupings of the colours arranged by hue value and chroma that are most flattering to an individual (Jackson, 1985).

Conservative colour: Colour that is dark or middle in value (Darnhorst et al., 2004).

Classic neutral colour: Navy, gray, brown, black, beige and tan (Damhorst et al., 2004).

Credibility: The quality of inspiring belief through appearance (Forysthe, 1993; Kaiser, 1997).

Debt free budget: No debt beyond mortgage and car payment (Pemberton-Sikes, 2004).

Diagonal line: Leads the eye in a diagonal direction (Davis, 1996).

Dress for success: Apparel choices that lend power to the wearer (Marshall et al., 2004).

Dress codes: The use and combination of clothing cues to signify affiliation and belonging (Kaiser, 1997; Ogle & Damhorst, 1999).

Everyday casual: Casual clothes that may include jeans, t-shirt and shorts (Marshall et al, 2004).

Ectomorph: ‘I’he percentage of fat distribution on a body is very low; limbs arc long and narrow (Marshall et at., 2004).

Effectiveness: The characteristic of producing a result, which can be assigned on the basis of appearance (Kaiser, 1983).

Endomorph: The percentage of fat distribution on a body is high; the body appears soft and round (Marshall et al., 2004).

First impression: Information provided by a sender’s initial appearance (Kaiser, 1997).

Halo effect: Information provided by an initial meeting that results in positive or negative assignment of attributes following that first meeting (Marshall et al., 2004

Horizontal line: Leads the eye across in a horizontal direction (Davis, 1996).

Innovative dress: Clothes that are unusual or trendy, an individualistic appearance (Marshall et al., 2004).

Line: Line leads the eye in a direction (Davis, 1996).

Male business suit: Consists of a matched business jacket, slacks and a dress shirt and tie (Marshall et al., 2004).
Mesomorph: The percentage of fat on a body appears low and the muscle development is well defined (Marshall et al., 2004).

Potency: Measurement of achievements, skills, relational status or power (Damhorst, 1990), Power: The potential to influence behaviour of others (Johnson & Lennon, 1999).

Quality apparel: The attributes of each element of a garment helps to determine its quality, such as fabric, buttonholes, linings and finishing details. These elements will affect how the garment looks and how long it will last (Marshall et al., 2004).

Receiver: “The person who reads and interprets the (clothing) message” (Marshal et al., 2004, p. 108).

Sender: “The person who develops the (clothing) message” (Marshall et. al, 2004, p. 108).

Style Notebook: A personalized guide for each participant that incorporates their ideal colours and clothing styles, figure analysis, mix and match wardrobe capsule, wardrobe analysis and wardrobe plan.

Traditional business: Classic business wear, such as suits and blouses for women (Marshal et al., 2004).

Uniforms: Apparel selected by an employer to project consistency and professionalism (Marshall et al., 2004).

Vertical line: Leads the eyes up and down or in a vertical direction (Davis, 1996).

Wardrobe Analysis: Analyzing an existing wardrobe to determine what items are needed so that wardrobe planning can take place.

Assumption
The study was based upon the following assumptions that women would like to be perceived as powerful, credible and effective, and would like to maximize their potential by understanding the effects of appropriate business dress. It was further assumed that the appropriate business dress is generalizable across most professions.

Limitations
The most significant limitations of this study was investigating only one aspect of impression formation, clothing. An impression is formed using many cues, such as clothing, speech, grooming, hand gestures and aroma (Forysthe, 1993; Kaiser, 1997). In a work environment clothing cannot protect a person when the work is not well done. As a person becomes known the clothing often becomes less significant. The workshop was limited to four meetings so not all aspects of clothing and appearance were addressed.




CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The purpose of this project was to develop a series of four workshops that focused on the presentation of an image that will convey professional credibility, power and effectiveness for women in business positions. The review of literature will cover 1) the importance of image, 2) art principles and elements related to achieving a professional appearance, and 3) wardrobe management.

Importance of Image
Appearance is the way all the elements, such as body, clothing choices, accessories and grooming, fit together to send a visual meaning (Kaiser, 1997). Visual meanings are often assigned to items of clothing. These visual meanings are called clothing cues. Clothing cues can communicate information about the sender to the receiver (Forsythe et al., 1985; Kaiser, 1997, 1983; Marshall et al, 2004). In this unconscious mental process, receivers make judgments about senders on the basis of their appearance. Researchers have determined that some of the visual information gathered from the sender could include assumptions about personality traits, physical and biological characteristics, social position, demographics, occupational roles and intentions and motives (Damhorst, 1990; Johnson et aL, 2002; Roach- Higgins & Eicher, 1992).

When people meet in business and social situations they look at each other and subconsciously form impressions about the other based upon the visual meanings of dress or clothing cues (Forsythe Ct al., 1985; Kaiser, 1997; Marshal, et al., 2004). The impressions that are assigned to the sender could be positive and facilitate further communication or, conversely, could be negative and halt any further communication (Kaiser; Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992). For example, during an interview situation when time is short, the impression becomes critical so that verbal communication can proceed (Kaiser; Marshall et al.).

People are attracted to others whom they perceive as resembling themselves (Kaiser, 1983, 1997; Reid, Lancuba & Morrow, 1997; Rucker, Taber & Harrison, 1981). Reid, Lancuba and Morrow observed that subjects dressed in an alternative style, likewise, rated a woman dressed in an alternative style higher on the attractiveness and likeability scale. During an interview or when working for a company that has a distinctive image, it may become important to adopt the visual meanings or clothing cues of that group in order to be perceived as belonging and as having the proficiencies needed to get ahead (Barnard, 2002; Kaiser, 1997; Workman, 1990).

First Impressions in an Interview Situation
“The term first impression refers to the initial judgments made about another person based upon observable characteristics and behaviours as well as inferences made about the person’s personality, behaviour, and characteristics” (Bums & Lennon, 1993, p. 9). Often the impression that is formed during a first meeting, such as an interview, will influence the way that the sender is perceived following the initial meeting (Turner- Bowker, 2001). After the first impression the receiver may assign a trait or a cluster of traits based upon the appearance of the sender or applicant (Kaiser, 1997). This halo effect can repeatedly credit the sender with positive or negative attributes long after the first meeting (Bchling, 1995; Kaiser; Marshall et al., 2004). The initial assignment of characteristics could influence subsequent expectations. Impression Management
With the purposeful use of clothing, one can stage their appearance to send a first impression of credibility, power and effectiveness (Johnson & Lennon, 1999; Rudd & Lennon, 1999). By understanding the messages that each item of clothing sends, a person could use this information to influence the assignment of characteristics (Kaiser, 1983; Marshall et al,, 2004). In a professional or interview situation, the assignment of positive characteristics such as an occupational role, intentions, motives, and power could influence the perception of the sender’s abilities.

Impression management could benefit women negotiating lifestyle changes such as moving from student to professional, changing careers or during advancement in an existing profession (Kaiser. 1997). The use of impression management strategies could assist the sender in creating an image of professional power and effectiveness (Kaiser; Turner-Bowker, 2001). Impression management can lead to dressing for success.

Dress for Success Women in the Workforce
As women were entering the workforce in record numbers in the I 970s (Damhorst et a!., 2004; Forsythe, 1993; Kaiser, 1997; Ogle & Damhorst, 1999) there was confusion as to what clothing would best convey professional credibility, power and effectiveness. The male business suit has been an accepted symbol of a successful businessman since the I 9th century (Damhorst & Reed, 1986; Kaiser; Ogle & Danthorst). Should a woman who wishes to be viewed as successful wear a suit imitating a man? “Dressing for success” strategies became critical as women were entering into formerly male dominated professions (Forsythe).

Masculinity of Dress
The perceived gender of an ensemble can influence the impression that is made. Research suggests that when women dress too masculine (e.g., wearing a tic), people will react negatively (Forsythe et al., 1985; Johnson, Crutsinger & Workman, 1994). However, when a woman dressed in a suit with a tailored blouse she is perceived as having masculine managerial traits such as leadership ability, competitiveness, desires responsibility, self-confidence, objectivity, aggressiveness, forcefulness and ambitiousness (Damhorst et al., 2004; Forsythe et al.; Forsythe, 1987, 1990). A woman dressed in a soft feminine dress is often perceived to possess feminine traits such as intuition, helpfulness, humanistic qualities, efficiency and sensitivity. Research studies indicate that it is best for women in management to error on the side of appearing too masculine than feminine, as masculine clothing does not appear to affect the ratings of feminine attributes (Damhorst, 1990; Damhorst et al.; Forsythe et al., Forsythe 1987).

Formality of Dress on the Job
In business and the secondary level of the teaching profession, formal female business attire seems to project a more powerful appearance (Kenner, Underwood & McClune, 2002; Kwon & Johnson-Hillary, 1998). The formal attire consisted of a dark skirt suit with a white blouse, the semi formal attire was a pair of pants with a plaid sports jacket, and informal attire was a blouse and pants. The suit jacket appears to be a key part of a business ensemble. It was found to impart expert and legitimate power (Ross & Barker, 2003; Temple & Loewen, 1993). In general, a more formal appearance for a woman was ranked with more powerful appearance attributes, such as authoritative, credible, competent, reliable, intelligent, trustworthy, willing to work hard, efficient, approachable, courteous, friendly, and business-like (Kenner et at.; Kwon & Johnson-Hillary, 2001).

Conservative Business Attire in an Interview Situation
In 1999 Ogle and Damhorst reviewed “Dress for Success” articles published in the popular press. They found the most recommended ensemble for interview attire was the tailored suit. Researchers found that wearing conservative business dress was the most advantageous for interviews and career advancement regardless of the occupation or the gender of the interviewer (Damhorst et al., 2004; Forsythe, 1990; Jenkins & Atkins, 1990). Damhorst and colleagues suggested that to enhance your image, conservative attire is best, even in a more casual work environment because “the job interview is a ritualistic situation in which the job applicant makes a symbolic performance” (Damhorst et al., p. 232).

Damhorst and colleagues studied interview attire in 1991 and 2002 (Damhorst & Fiore, 1999; Damhorst et al., 2004)). The results from the 2002 study indicated that the preferred suit styling had become more conservative since the 1991 study. The preferred suits in 1991 were coordinates, not necessarily from the same fabric, and many did not have collars and lapels. However, in the 2002 study they found that many of the preferred suits were more conservative than in 1991 with traditional collars and lapels and being constructed of the same fabric. Interestingly, the preferred 2002 ensembles included the less conservative pantsuit. The 2002 ensembles considered as most appropriate had less jewellery and slightly lower necklines. The skirt length of the suits remained conservative in both studies. Damhorst and colleagues (2004) concluded that a ‘projection of a sensible professional and business committed appearance seemed to be expected by the recruiters and employment interviewers” (p. 232).

Hair and Makeup
Jenkins and Atkins (1990) found that the least acceptable hairstyle in an interview situation was a punk look, followed by a short, curly style. The best hairstyle was a softly waved shoulder length style. Workman and Johnson (1991) found that a woman using a moderate amount of makeup was perceived as more attractive and feminine. In addition, they found that women who used too much makeup were perceived as having loose morals (Workman & Johnson).

Art Principles and Elements as Related to Dress for Success Color
In the 1 970s personal colour analysis was transformed into big business (Kaiser, 1997). Jackson (1985) developed a personal color analysis based upon each individual’s skin, eye and natural hair colouring. Each person was then categorized into a season, or colour palette. The seasons included: Autumn (warm, dark and muted), Winter (cool, dark and clear), Spring (warm, light and bright), and Summer (cool, light and muted). When an individual wears the colours of the season that are most harmonious, their complexion will be smoothed and clarified. Jackson indicated the colours selected incorrectly would accentuate facial flaws such as dark circles, blotches, and lines. Francis and Evans (1988) found that a model wearing an apricot or red blouse in her colour season was ranked higher than models not wearing colours in their colour palette.

In 1990, Jenkins and Atkins found the best perceived suit colour for an interview was navy. Damhorst and colleagues conducted two studies, 1999 and 2002, in which they looked at the most acceptable colours and styles of interview suits. Results from the 1999 study suggested that green and gold along with subdued neutrals were selected as more appropriate. In 2002, Damhorst and colleagues found that the best colours were more conservative: solid, dark and middle in value, along with classic neutrals such as black, grey, navy, brown and camel.

In their study investigating clothing colour and value on the effects of evaluations of female job applicants, Damhorst and Reed (1986) found male interviewers responded more positively to darker suit colors. Six photographs of female models (the models were Caucasian but varied in personal colouring and physical attractiveness), each wearing four different colored jackets, were rated by male and female respondents. The male interviewers rated female applicants in darker jackets higher in potency and sociability. Women interviewers applied more opposite characteristics than men to applicants in dark suits. The researchers concluded that women probably do not hold consistent expectations for women’s business dress. Research seems to indicate that for men “the dark suit is a deeply ingrained symbol of the male business executive” (Damhorst & Reed, p. 95). In addition, women who wish “to optimize all aspects of self presentation, choice of a dark colored suit may aid slightly in fostering a professional impression” (Damhorst & Reed, p. 96). Line and Design

The skillful use of line and design in clothing selection can assist women in developing a more ideal appearance. An ideal appearance can help people to experience more “reward power,” such as such as honor and personal approval from another (Johnson, Heglund & Schofield, 1999; Johnson & Lennon, 1999). An ideal appearance must conform to societal norms, such as coordinated clothing or youthful thin bodies in order to strengthen professional credibility power and effectiveness (Johnson & Lennon; Rudd & Lennon, 1999). In a professional environment, an ideal appearance “may be especially important for non mainstream groups such as young workers, ethnic minorities, women and obese individuals” (Johnson & Lennon, p. 5).

People are born with certain physical characteristics such as body build, body proportion, and face shape. The ideal physical characteristics arc influenced by culture and fashion (Marshall et al., 2004). The current European ideal body build is balanced, with a 3-2-3 proportion. Body types are categorized according to similarities in composition, for example, the percentage of fat to lean body mass as represented by endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph. The vertically, well proportioned body can be divided into four equal parts: top of the head to underarm, underarm to the hip, hip to the knee, and the knee to the sole of the foot. With the use of this group of basic principles of line and design in clothing selection, one can create the illusion of a more ideal appearance.

Line creates visual impressions that can be used to create an ideal appearance. Line leads the eye and can define and create shape. Line will indicate direction, and, with skillful use, create an illusion (Davis, 1996; Marshall et al., 2004). The skillful use of line in clothing can conceal a flaw and emphasize a positive (Davis).

The illusions created by line are infinite in variety. The fundamental lines include vertical, horizontal, diagonal, zigzag and curved. Vertical lines generally add height and length to the body and will lead the eye up and down. Vertical lines can be created in clothing through the use of colour or silhouette. Vertical lines are good for those people who wish to appear taller (Davis, 1996; Marshall et al., 2004). A horizontal line leads the eye across the body, then adds width or breadth and can shorten the body. Some very tall and slender people use horizontal lines to look wider. Diagonal lines can create a shortening or lengthening effect. Diagonal lines can often be slimming if the slant is closer to the vertical, such as the shape of lapels on a business jacket (Marshall et al.). Zigzag lines (a series of connected diagonals) increase mass. Curved lines are soft and lead the eye; they usually will also increase mass.

Wardrobe Management
In order to present a daily image that will convey professional credibility, power and effectiveness, one must have the appropriate clothing. Through careful planning, a wardrobe that meets a person’s professional and budgetary needs can be achieved. Several key components must be analyzed in order to plan and develop a working wardrobe. The planning process to achieve a powerful “dress for success” wardrobe includes taking into consideration personal body characteristics, career goals, company dress code, budget and the existing wardrobe (Davis, 1996; Feldon, 2003; Marshall et a!., 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004).

Career Goals
It is important to consider where one is positioned in a job life cycle when planning a “dress for success” wardrobe. Rucker, Anderson, and Kangas (1999) found employees who were near retirement or were satisfied with their positions were not interested in looking powerful, they were more concerned with comfort. For people that were younger or desired an advancement, “dress for success” became more important.

Dress Codes
During an interview or when working for a company that has a distinctive image, it may become important to adopt the visual meanings or clothing cues of that group, or dress code, in order to be perceived as belonging and as having the proficiencies needed to get ahead (Bernard, 2002; Kaiser,1997; Workman, 1990). Dress codes for business clothing can be divided into five categories: traditional business, business casual, everyday casual, uniforms and innovative dress (Marshall et al, 2004). Because the suit jacket appears to be the key part of an ensemble imparting expert and legitimate power (Ross & Barker, 2003; Temple & Loewen, 1993), it is important to incorporate the jacket into each category of dress code to create and maintain a powerful image.

For a traditional professional wardrobe the dress code incorporates traditional basic suit pieces, such as the jacket, skirt and pant in the same fabric, with formal styling. Business casual dress code is more informal than traditional business dress. A less tailored or formal jacket could be worn, and the pieces can mix and match in coordinating ensembles. Everyday casual company employees might wear jeans or even shorts. In order to appear serious about ones position, a jacket of more casual fabric and style could complete an ensemble. Innovative dress is embraced by companies that want their employees to project a unique image (Marshall Ct al., 2004). People in this case would wear an ensemble that was unique. Incorporating an innovative jacket would maintain a powerful image.

Budget
Through careful planning an effective and powerful wardrobe need not be expensive. First, it is important to discover actual clothing expenditures in the past year and compare them to what financial planners recommend (Pemberton-Sikes, 2004; Ramsey, 2003). Financial planners recommend in a debt free budget (beyond mortgage and car loans), a clothing budget equal to an average of 6% of household income divided among all family members per year. In addition, the allocation should be further divided into Fall and Spring shopping seasons.

In order to stretch a wardrobe dollar it is important to consider quality versus quantity, stay within the preferred colour palette and only buy clothing that is flattering to the figure. By following these guidelines costly errors can be reduced. When key pieces in a wardrobe, such as a basic suit in a neutral color, need to be purchased it is important to look at quality. The basic suit pieces should be of high quality so that they can last for a long time and be used as a building block for future purchases (Feldon, 2003; Marshall et al., 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004).

When the best quality clothing is purchased, the item will last longer than a similar item of poorer quality. The price per wearing becomes very low (Marshall Ct aL, 2004). For example, a pair of $100 pants that is worn twice a week for a year will have a cost per wearing of $0.96.

Analysis of Existing Wardrobe
Analyzing an existing wardrobe is often very emotional because ensembles are identified with meanings from past experiences (Guy & Banim, 2000). In order to make a rational evaluation of clothing, it is important to look at each item as objectively as possible. The objective questions to ask would include: is this item of clothing in the best colour palette; is the item in good repair, of good quality, and a good fit; does the item convey the appropriate image; and is the item a flattering style? If the answer to any of these questions is “no,” the item should be eliminated (Feldon, 2003; Marshal et al., 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004). Elimination of those items that do not fit the criteria will leave only items on which to build a wardrobe that conveys credibility, power and effectiveness.

Color
To help create a more ideal appearance all pieces of clothing in a wardrobe should be in a flattering colour palette. A practical benefit to a harmonious colour palette becomes apparent when a person adheres to that palette to guide wardrobe planning. The whole wardrobe gradually coordinates as new pieces are introduced (Davis, 1996; Jackson, 1985). This enables a person to have more colour coordinated ensemble combinations.
The core of a basic professional wardrobe begins with a good quality neutral colored suit. The formality of the suit can be reflective of the category of business such as traditional, business casual, every day casual. The best suit colours are more conservative: solid, dark and middle in value, along with classic neutrals such as black, grey, navy, brown and camel (Damhorst et al., 2004; Feldon, 2003).

Line and Design
The clothing pieces in a wardrobe should also incorporate design elements that will enhance positive physical attributes and disguise negative attributes in order to achieve the ideal appearance (Davis, 1996; Feldon, 2003). For example, if a person has short legs, a shorter jacket and narrow pants would create the illusion of longer legs (Davis).

Capsule Concept
A well-planned wardrobe consists of clothing that will project the desired appearance of professional credibility, power and effectiveness. A basic capsule will achieve this goal with a minimum amount of clothing (Marshal Ct al., 2004; Wallach, 1981). The capsule concept is the principle of utilizing a small group of clothing items that are coordinated in colour, in flattering styles and shapes and with interchangeable parts (Wallach). A person can have one capsule or many capsules depending on their needs.
A basic capsule is limited to two principle colours, each of which can be worn alone or mixed with the other (Wallach, 1981). As a wardrobe consultant for 18 years, this researcher discovered that a capsule can be simplified to one basic colour and then augmented with accents. Navy is a good example for a spring or winter colour palette (various shades of camel would be good for summer, spring or autumn). Basic suit pieces such as a pant skirt and jacket in navy would be the foundation. The suit pieces can be worn together for interviews when a very formal appearance is desired or can be broken up to be worn in various combinations for a business casual or an everyday casual look.

Additional tops, skirts and pants that would be added should coordinate with the navy capsule. A print skirt with navy and other colours could be worn with the jacket for a business look. For a party look the same print skirt could be worn with a camisole top. Various accent colored tops could be worn with the suit. Each piece added to this capsule will create more wardrobe options. A beaded top could take the basic suit from the office to a party. The wardrobe options become vast with careful planning (Davis, 1996; Marshal et al., 2004; Wallach, 1981).

Wardrobe Planning for Career Success
Wardrobe planning begins with what is considered good in the existing closet, after a wardrobe analysis is conducted. The clothing left in the closet should be in the correct colour palette, good repair, of good quality and fit, in the appropriate image, and in a flattering style. The next step is to group clothing into possible capsules by color, for example, all the basic items that coordinate with a navy pant. The navy capsule (or other basic colour, such as camel, black, brown) should include a suit jacket, tops, navy bottoms, shoes and a handbag. There may be the beginnings of more than one capsule. Each capsule should be examined and a shopping list created featuring the missing items from the groupings (Davis, 1996; Marshall et al., 2004; Pemberton-Sikes, 2004; Wallach, 1981). When a clothing budget is limited it is best to focus on acquiring garments related to one capsule at a time. The subsequent step would be to introduce another capsule colour such as beige suit pieces. The navy and beige pieces can be mixed together. With careful planning, separate tops and bottoms can work with both capsules.

After wardrobe analysis, careful planning and purchasing, the clothing in the closet should be in the correct colour palette, in good repair, of good quality, of good fit, in an appropriate image and in a flattering style. With all of these elements in place a person should be able to use their clothes effectively and project a daily image of professional credibility, power and effectiveness.

Summary
The role of appearance in communicating a professional, credible and powerful image has been established (Forsythe, 1993; Kenner et al., 2002). Clothing is one aspect of appearance that is easy to change. By understanding the messages that each item of clothing sends, and implementing a systematic wardrobe plan a pcrson could develop a powerful and competent professional appearance.

Peranan gelagat keusahawanan dalaman sebagai pembolehubah pengantaraan

Peranan gelagat keusahawanan dalaman sebagai pembolehubah pengantaraan di dalam syarikat-syarikat perkilangan multinasional yang terpilih.

Kajian ini meneliti peranan gelagat keusahawanan dalaman di kalangan pekerja yang bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah penyambung antara faktor-faktor dalaman dan luaran dengan prestasi organisasi. Data diperoleh daripada 155 pekerja daripada enam syarikat perkilangan yang dipilih di Lembah Klang dan Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. Keputusan regresi menunjukkan bahawa persekitaran dalaman dan luaran mempunyai hubungan positif terhadap perilaku intrapreneurial, dan (b) gelagat keusahawanan dalaman mempunyai hubungan yang sederhana ke atas prestasi organisasi. Dengan demikian, persekitaran dalaman dan luaran positif dapat mempengaruhi perilaku keusahawanan dalaman dan seterusnya meningkatkan prestasi organisasi.

The role of intrapreneurial behaviour as mediating variable

The role of intrapreneurial behaviour as mediating variable within the selected multinational corporation manufacturing firm.

This study examines a mediated process linking intrapreneurial behaviour and organizational performance. Data were obtained from 155 employees from six selected manufacturing firms in the Klang Valley and Penang, Malaysia. Regression results reveal that (a) internal and external environment have positively relationship on intrapreneurial behaviour, and (b) intrapreneurial behaviour fully mediates the interactive effects of internal and external environment on organizational performance. Thus, the internal and external environment positively affects intrapreneurship behaviour, which in turn leads to organizational performance.

Keywords: external environment; internal environment, firm performance; intrapreneurial behaviour

In today’s dynamic environment of global competition, rapid technological innovations, short product life cycles, and demanding product customization, manufacturing firms face a high level of uncertainty caused by ongoing change. Previous research has suggested development of intrapreneurship as a strategy to deal with the more dynamic and competitive market (Zahra, 2004; Antoncic, 2007). Many believe that intrapreneurship could enable a faster and more cost-efficient response to rapid market changes. Intrapreneurship has become an effective way for gaining competitive advantage in an uncertain manufacturing environment (Lumpkin& Dess, 2005; Pinchot, 2002; Zahra, 2004; Zahra & Garvis, 2000; Goosen, 2002). Meanwhile, intrapreneurship has been promoted as necessary to improve a firm’s competitiveness and performance. In practice, intrapreneurship includes a wide range of processes or activities characterized by a tendency to act autonomously, a propensity to innovate and take risks, and a predisposition to be aggressive toward competitors, as well as proactive with regard to marketplace opportunities, to aim at new venture creation (Lumpkin and Dess, 2005).

Fisher (1989) argues that employee behaviour should be treated as the mediator between organizational policy and organizational performance. Among diverse employee behaviours, a small but steady stream of research starts to explore employees’ intrapreneurial behaviours in the workplace (e.g., Kuratko, Montagno, & Hornsby, 1990). Intrapreneurial behaviour is behaviour that employees inside organizations demonstrate in pursuing opportunities with boldness and aggressiveness (Covin & Slevin, 1991), without regard for the resources they currently control (Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990), and searching for creative or new solutions (Antoncic & Hisrich, 2000) to problems and difficulties in their work. Briefly, intrapreneurial behaviour is characterized by innovativeness, proactiveness, and constructive risk taking that employees demonstrate in accomplishing their work. However, empirical research to investigate relationships between internal organisational factor external environment and firm performance performance largely ignores employee behaviours, in particular intrapreneurial behaviour. If internal and external environment is to contribute to organizational performance, it has to foster employees’ intrapreneurial behaviour. Similarly, Antoncic (2004) assert that internal organisational factor is an organizational culture and process that most effectively creates the necessary employee behaviours for creating superior value for buyers and, thus, continuous performance. The focus on the intermediate role of employees’ behaviours will contribute to the current literature concerning the internal and external environment–performance relationship.

Figure 1
Schematic Representation of Process Linking Internal Environment, External Environment, Intrapreneurial Behaviour to Firm Performance


To address theoretical limitations, this study examines (a) the main effect of internal and external environment on intrapreneurship behaviour; (b) the main effect of intrapreneurial behaviour on firm performance. Figure 1 presents a schematic representation of the variables examined in this study.

Theory and Hypotheses

The Internal Environment–Intrapreneurial Behaviour
The extant research has focused extensively on the type of internal antecedents that could impede intrapreneurship as well as the benefits of developing intrapreneurial behaviour within corporations (Morris & Kuratko, 2002). Accordingly, the second set of predictors of intrapreneurial behaviour includes the following key internal antecedents: Management support, work discretion, reward and reinforcement, organisational resources, organisational boundaries, barriers and bureaucracies.

The rewards and reinforcement system in a firm should be structured so that it encourages intrapreneurial behavior. According to Hornsby et al. (2002) the system has to increase the motivation of employees to act intrapreneurially. In order to encourage intrapreneurial behaviour, the reward system should consider “goals, feedback, emphasis on individual responsibility and results-based incentives” (Hornsby et al.2, 2002). According to Zahra (2004), rewards for intrapreneurial behaviour are not only financial. More challenges, responsibility and recognition (Hornsby et al., 2002) as well as more autonomy or budget (Christensen, 2005) are also of influence on the intrapreneurial behaviour of individuals.

The process of incubating and implementing ideas requires time. The company should make it possible for the employee to make time free for these activities and to work on long term problem solving besides his short term goals (Hornsby et al., 2002). Employees should feel that they really have time available for these actions (Kuratko et al., 2005). Originally, based on their previous literature study, Kuratko and Hornsby also pointed to the importance of other resources but time which encourage intrapreneurial behaviour (Kuratko et al., 2005). Easy accessibility to resources, such as funds, makes it easier to experiment and take risks (Hornsby et al., 2002).

In order to enable and encourage intrapreneurial behaviour, the management should adopt a policy that facilitates and promotes such activities in the firm (Hornsby et al., 2002). The management policy should result in employees believing that innovation and intrapreneurial behaviour take a permanent part of their role in the organization (Hornsby et al., 2002). The management should create an intrapreneurial culture in the firm, in which employees have the facilities and backup of the management to innovate and show intrapreneurial behaviour. Examples of the forms that management support can take are “quick adoption of employee ideas, recognition of people who bring ideas forwards, support for small experimental projects, and seed money to get projects off the ground” (Hornsby et al., 2002).

Intrapreneurial behaviour is influenced by the extent to which employees are allowed to make decisions themselves regarding how to perform their work (Hornsby et al., 2002). Employees should feel a certain amount of autonomy when working on their job because when they are only expected to follow prescribed work methods, there is no space or need for them to come with their own ideas and improvements. An important part of the autonomy/work discretion factor is the ability of employees to take risks. In the original factor classification (see table 2.1 above) risk taking is even put aside as a separate factor. Both employees and management should accept taking risks by the shop floor and tolerate possible failures (Kuratko et al., 2005). Employees should be allowed to experiment and learn from their mistakes and failures.

Organizational boundaries, real and imaginary, should be eliminated, so that employees can look at the organization in a broad perspective. They should be able to look also at problems which do not only involve their own job (Hornsby et al., 2002). The organizational structure should be supportive for intrapreneurial behaviour (Hornsby et al., 2002). Among other things, it has to facilitate knowledge and resources sharing across the firm (Christensen, 2005). Also in this context it is important that the employee is not only restricted to following standard working procedures (Hornsby et al., 2002).

Hornsby et al. (2002) synthesized these internal antecedents to five factors. These authors concur that while the literature illustrates a wide variety of intrapreneurial behaviour factors, there are a few elements that are consistent throughout the texts in this field, namely management support for innovation, work discretion and autonomy, rewards, resource and time availability and flexible organizational boundaries. This discussion forms the basis of the first hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1: Internal environment is positively related to intrapreneurship behaviour.

The External Environment–Intrapreneurial Behaviour
Various researchers have identified intrapreneurial behaviour as an employees-level response to environmental conditions (Antoncic, 2003; Zahra, 2004). A further distinction can be drawn between environmental conditions that are favourable, or munificent, and those that are unfavourable, or hostile.

Environmental munificence can be seen as a multidimensional concept that includes dynamism, technological opportunities, industry growth and the demand for new products (Zahra, 2004). Dynamism refers to perceived instability and continuing changes in the firm's markets. Increased dynamism can be viewed as being conducive to the pursuit of intrapreneurship because it tends to create opportunities in a firm's markets (Zahra, 2004). Organizations often respond to challenging conditions found in dynamic or high-tech environments by adopting an intrapreneurial posture Heinonen, 2005). Changes in industry competitive structure and the underlying technologies are also thought to influence intrapreneurial behaviour among employees (Harrington, 2001). Two other munificent environmental characteristics are perceived industry growth and increased demand for new products.

Thompson and Strickland (2006) suggested that the perceived decline of an industry would push companies into increased renewal activities. Growth markets, on the other hand, offer opportunities that lead to increased intrapreneurial activities. Accordingly, high market growth has been postulated as being related to corporate start-up success (Goosen, 2002). Demand for new products also presents an important market-pull (Zahra, 2004) that encourages intrapreneurship. Therefore, it is expected that dynamism, technological changes, industry growth and the demand for new products will be positively related to intrapreneurial behaviour.

Environmental hostility has been found to be related to the intrapreneurial behaviour of successful small firms (Covin, Green, & Slevin (2006). Hostility tends to create threats for the organization, and these threats stimulate the pursuit of intrapreneurial behaviours (Zahra, 2004). Two hostile environmental conditions that appear to affect intrapreneurship are unfavourable change and competitive rivalry. Unfavourable change refers to the extent to which ongoing developments in various components of the environment are perceived as unfavourable to a company's goals and mission, whereas competitive rivalry refers to the intensity of competitive threats (Zahra, 2004). The above research forms the basis of the second hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1: External environment is positively related to intrapreneurship behaviour.

The Mediating Role of Intrapreneurial Behaviour
We contend that intrapreneurial behaviour may mediate the relationship between internal and external environment and organizational performance. Firms adopting a intrapreneurial culture will tend to foster intrapreneurship behaviour. Intrapreneurial behaviour involves the proactive pursuit of creative or new solutions to challenges confronting them (Antoncic & Hisrich, 2000). Intrapreneurs are not satisfied with the status quo, work to better satisfy customers’ needs, and promote organizational performance. Employees who fail to display intrapreneurial behaviour are likely to be slower to react to external threats and more likely to miss emerging opportunities (Antoncic & Hisrich, 2000). Empirical research supports a positive relationship between intrapreneurial behaviour and firm performance (Antoncic & Hisrich, 2007). Thus, the above argument suggests that a internal and external environment contributes to intrapreneurial behaviour, which in turn contributes to firm performance. This study, therefore, propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3: Intrapreneurial behaviour mediates the interactive effects of internal and external environment on firm performance.

Type of Study
This study was an explanatory study of intrapreneurial behaviour in selected manufacturing firm in Malaysia. A cross-sectional survey was used to determine how the independent variables influence the intrapreneurial behaviour within manufacturing sectors in Malaysia. A survey design allows for the collection of a large volume of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical way. Mail surveys in particular can be used to collect data from a substantial number of geographically dispersed respondents. These surveys were conducted after identifying the key informant in each firm.

The Population and Sample
Six manufacturing firm from Klang Valley and Penang were selected to be included in the sample to serve as a ‘known group’ sample. It was mutually agreed that no mention of individual or organization names would be mentioned in the research to ensure confidentiality of the organizations involved. Therefore the organizations shall be referred to as Company A, Company B, Company C, Company D, Company E, and Company F in all further discussions. A brief description of each company is discussed below, including the response rates yielded from each company.

The survey was administered to respondents consisted managers and non-managers position in a selected corporation. This corporation was selected for this study because it is comprised of six physically separate companies located in different states. The six companies were different in a number of ways, such as the number of years in operation in Malaysia, and size employees provided. Company A from Germany and has been operating for more than 5 years, Company B from Taiwan and has been operating for more than 5 years. Company C from Japan and has been operating for 2-5 years. Company D from Great Britain and also has been operating for 2-5 years. Company E from United States and has been operating for 2-5 years. Company F from Italy and has been operating more than 5 years. The six companies were manufacturing-based companies of different types of product such as electronic, car, car components and car accessories.

The total number of people employed by the six companies is 1101. Each employee was invited to voluntarily participate in the study by filling out a 20 minute survey. Employee confidentiality was maintained in that no personally identifiable information was collected and any groups of 10 or fewer respondents, when stratified based on demographic data, were incorporated into the next closest strata. A total of 155 employees, or 14.1% of the population, responded to the survey. The population and sample data are shown in Table 4.1.


Table 1: Population and Sample Sizes by Company
MNC Company State Population Sample Response rate
Company A (Germany) Penang 180 33 18.3%
Company B (Taiwan) Penang 131 22 16.8
Company C (Japan) Klang Valley 117 33 28.2%
Company D (United Kingdom) Klang Valley 133 14 10.5%
Company E (United States) Penang 220 29 13.2%
Company F (Italy) Klang Valley 320 24 7.5%
Total 1101 155 14.1%

The Measurement Instrument
The measurement instrument was developed to assess the internal and external environment that influence the intrapreneurial behaviour among employee within manufacturing sectors in Klang Valley and Penang, Malaysia. In order to ensure the validity and reliability of the measurement instrument, it was essential to define the key variables accurately and clearly. All items were developed by questions formulated by the researcher (based on the literature) to ensure that each variable in the measurement instrument was represented the particular variables.

Based on the pilot feedback, several items were reworded to ensure clarity. Response options of all the measures in the survey, unless otherwise indicated, ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
The first step involved the establishment of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The assessment of CFA model fit was based on multiple criteria that reflected statistical, theoretical, and practical considerations, as suggested by Byrne (2001). The 2 measure is the most generally reported measure of model fit. However, it should also be highlighted that the 2 statistic should not be considered in isolation because it is sensitive to both sample size and the degrees of freedom in the model and can lead to the rejection of too many models (Raykov, 1998). Byrne (2001) suggests that other goodness-of-fit statistics should also be taken into account when determining the model fit, which "take a more pragmatic approach in the evaluation process" (p. 81) including Chi square/degree of freedom ( /df), Goodness-of-fit (GFI), Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). Having said that, Steiger (1990) argues that the RMSEA has recently been recognised as one of the most informative criteria in covariance structure modeling, and it takes into account the error of approximation in the population Similarly, Byrne (2001) suggests that RMSEA is one of the most informative indices of model fit because it takes into account the error of approximation in the population, has a less stringent requirement on 2 , and is less sensitive to the number of sample and parameters in the model. In view of Byrne's (2001) pragmatic approach in determining model fit, a set of goodness of fit indices were observed including , /df, GFI, TLI, CFI, and RMSEA to assess the model fit in this study. The recommended fit indices are summarised in Table 2 below.

Table 2
Goodness of Fit Criteria to Determine Model Fit
Goodness of fit criteria Type Acceptable Recommended values Interpretation
Chi-square Model fit p > .05 Non-significance means the model fits the observed covariances and correlations.
Chi-square/df (CMIN/DF) Absolute Model Parsimony Less than 3.0 Less than 2.0 Values 0 indicates poor model fit. Values ranging from 2.0 to 3.0 signify mediocre fit
Goodness-of-fit (GFI) Absolute Fit 0 (no fit) 1 (perfect fit) Greater than 9.0 Value 0 indicates poor model fit and value more than 0.90 indicates good model fit.
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) Incremental Fit 0 (no fit) to 1 (perfect fit) Greater than 0.90 Value 0 indicates poor model fit and value more than 0.90 indicates good model fit.
Tucker-Lewis (TLI) Incremental Fit 0 (no fit) to 1 (perfect fit) Greater than 0.90 Value 0 indicates poor model fit and value more than 0.90 indicates good model fit.
Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) Absolute Fit 0 to 1 Less than 0.08 Values less than .05 indicate good model fit. Values ranging from .05 to .08 indicate acceptable fit. Values above .08 to .10 indicate mediocre fit. Values more than .10 indicate poor fit.
Sources: Byrne (2001), Hair et al. (2006), and Kline (2005).

Intrapreneurial behaviour. An 28 item scale was used to measure employees’ intrapreneurial behaviour. Employees were asked to comment on their own intraprenrial behaviours with regard to (a) their innovativeness, such as their accountability for implementing innovations and using mistakes as a source of learning, (b) their proactiveness, such as taking action before approval and acting as owners, and (c) their constructive risk taking, such as accepting mavericks. The fit indexes fell within an acceptable range ( =.229, df = 2; p=.892; /df=.114; GFI=.999; CFI=1.000; TLI=1.054; RMSEA = 0.00). The scale’s alpha reliability is 0.78.

Internal Environment. An 30 item scale was used to measure internal environment. Employees were asked to comment on the internal organizational characteristics with regard to (a) reward, (b) management support (c) resource and time availability, (d) autonomy, and (e) organizational boundaries. The fit indexes fell within an acceptable range ( =3.548, df = 2; p=.060; /df=3.548; GFI=.991; CFI=.998; TLI=.981; RMSEA = 0.10). The scale’s alpha reliability is 0.78.

External Environment. An 23 item scale was used to measure external environment. Employees were asked to comment on the external environment of their organization with regard to (a) dynamism, (b) technologies changes, (c) demand for new product, (d) unfavourable change and (e) competitive rivalry. The fit indexes fell within an acceptable range ( =.357, df = 2; p=.550; /df=.357; GFI=.999; CFI=1.000; TLI=1.004; RMSEA = 0.00). The scale’s alpha reliability is 0.78.

Firm performance. Self-reported indicators were used to measure firm performance. Self-reported subjective performance measures were used because of the difficulty in obtaining objective measures, correlations between subjective and objective measures, and use of subjective measures in prior similar studies (Matsuno et al., 2002). Employees were asked to compare their firm with other firms. Two subscales of nine items each were used to assess firm performance perception on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). The fit indexes for the one-factor model fell within an acceptable range ( =2.177, df = 2; p=.337; /df=1.089; GFI=.994; CFI=.999; TLI=.995; RMSEA = 0.024). The scale’s alpha reliability is 0.87.

Data Analysis
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using AMOS 16 to examine the distinctiveness of our study variables. These variables are internal environments, external environment, intrapreneurship behaviour, and firm performance. The fit of the hypothesized four-factor model was compared to a series of nested alternative models. As shown in Figure Table 2, the hypothesized (baseline) four-factor model showed good fit indices (χ2 = 0.020; RMSEA = 0.00; CFI = 1.000; TLI = 1.059) and yielded a significantly better fit to the data relative to model. The CFA results indicate support for the hypothesized four-factor model and the construct distinctiveness of the variables. To test the hypotheses of the study, regression analyses were conducted following procedures recommended for testing mediated moderation models (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt, 2005).

Figure 2
SEM for Internal Environment, External Environment, Intrapreneurial Behaviour to Firm Performance




Results
In Figure 2 (constructed in AMOS 16.0 with standardized values) it is shown that the external environment construct has a higher influence (0.52) on the intrapreneurial behaviour than the internal organizational factors constructs (0.38). These findings find that intrapreneurial behaviour construct has a high influence (0.42) on the firm performance than the external environment (-0.37). The internal and external environment have indirect effect on firm performance with the construct of intrapreneurial behaviour as the mediating variable. This finding also suggests that that the intrapreneurial behaviour is a construct that could be managed and improved by focusing on the internal antecedents of management support, rewards for intrapreneurial behaviour and allowing employees to have work discretion and to function autonomously.

Table 3 provides a summary of the standardized and standardized parameter estimates and t-values for the various paths in the SEM of the model shown in Figure 2 obtained in the AMOS 16.0 program.

Table 3
A summary of the dimensions and model estimates of the structural equation model for the influence of the internal antecedents and external on intrapreneurial behaviour
Estimate S.E. C.R. P
Intrapreneurial behaviour - Internal antecedents 1.402 .229 6.121 ***
Intrapreneurial behaviour - External antecedents .558 .067 8.388 ***
Firm Performance - External antecedents -.305 .072 -4.240 ***
Firm Performance - Intrapreneurial behaviour .324 .068 4.804 ***

The multiple fit indices of the SEM for intrapreneurial behaviour influenced by the internal antecedents and munificence, compared with recommended guidelines, are shown in Table 6.15. Because some of the fit indices evaluate different aspects of fit, it is important to evaluate fit based on multiple fit statistics, so that judgments will not be an artefact of analytical choice (Grimm & Yarhold, 2000).

Examining the multiple fit indices in Figure 2, the modified SEM model showed good fit. The overall model achieved a value of 1.00 for the Joreskog GFI, which meets the threshold of 0.90. The values for CFI, and TLI were 1.000, and 1.059 respectively. These values exceed the recommended threshold of 0.90. Finally, the RMSEA value of the overall model was 0.00, which is below the recommended threshold value of being below 0.05 to 0.10 (Hair et al., 2006). To summarise, all the fit indices indicated exceed the recommended guidelines for good fit and, therefore, it could be concluded that the model reflects good measurement and statistical fit.

In summary, a structural equation model was defined to assess the relationships between the internal antecedents and external antecedents, with the intrapreneurial behaviour and firm performance. The model showed significant parameter estimates and acceptable fit indices, compared with recommended guidelines. The implication of the SEM model is that the intrapreneurial behaviour can be managed through management of the internal antecedents (management support, rewards, time availability organizational boundaries and autonomy).

Discussion
This study examines the mediated process of the relationship between intrapreneurial behaviour and organizational performance. The study yields several empirical findings. First, the results suggest that intrapreneurial behaviour is positively related to firm performance. Second, the results support our contention that internal and external environment is positively related to intrapreneurship behaviour.

One of the important finding in this study is the relationship between intrapreneurial behaviour and firm performance. The intrapreneurial behaviour has strong relationship with firm performance in terms of growth and profitability. This finding is mirrors other studies shows that intrapreneurial behaviour have positive effects on firm performance and success in terms of growth, and profitability. Although empirical research with large samples on intrapreneurial behaviour is still limited, empirical results so far support this statement (Antoncic, 2007). In one of the largest and most recent studies done so far— among 477 Slovenian firms— Antoncic and Hisrich (2004) show empirically that intrapreneurial behaviour has positive influence on profitability and growth of firms. The relationship between intrapreneurial behaviour and these three factors is strong and significant. In a different study which adds firms from the United States, Antoncic (2007) shows that intrapreneurial behaviour is positively related to firm growth and partly to profitability.

The overall outcomes of intrapreneurial behaviour were of interest to the study in the manufacturing sector. Does intrapreneurial behaviour actually achieve positive and significant outcomes for manufacturing organization? The results of this study suggest they do; the outcome measure for organization impact was found to be significant and highly positive. Regardless of the size of the organization, intrapreneurial behaviour are viewed by various manager and non-manager in the organization as having important and positive outcomes for the firm performance.

The study extends research on the relationship between intrapreneurial activities and organizational performance through examining the mediated process in this relationship. This study reveals that intrapreneurship behaviour fully mediates the interactive effect of internal and external environment on firm performance. The result of the work provides new insight into the mechanisms through which internal and external environment affects firm performance.

Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
Although the present study aimed to make a significant contribution to the body of knowledge on intrapreneurial behaviour and the influence of antecedents to intrapreneurial behaviour, certain areas still need to be explored or expanded. Based on the outcome of this research, the following limitations are stated and opportunities for future research on intrapreneurial behaviour are outlined:

Using only six firms was a limitation of this study, since it is possible that the use of more respondents from more than two states in Malaysia could have provided a different picture of the intrapreneurial behaviour. Resource limitations only allowed for data collection from one respondent per company. This study is nevertheless a step towards providing insight into the intrapreneurial behaviour of established firms in Malaysia and the influence of intrapreneurial activities, internal and external antecedents. Future research should triangulate the views of one respondent with secondary sources, or use multiple respondents on different levels of management and different departments per company.

Future research should refine the model of the antecedents' influence on intrapreneurial behaviour. The antecedents only explain 41% of the variation of the data in intrapreneurial behaviour. Future research should enhance the predictive power of the model by measuring other internal factors, such as the influence of the individual in the intrapreneurial behaviour process; the type of intrapreneurial behaviour practiced by a company; organisational culture; the value system of an organisation; and its control systems - all of which may well influence intrapreneurial behaviour.

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